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![]() The Late Medieval Age Of Crisis And Renewal 1. Author by : Books, LLCLanguange : en. Publisher by : Books LLC, Wiki Series. Format Available : PDF, e. Pub, Mobi. Total Read : 3. Total Download : 2. File Size : 5. 2,7 Mb. Description : Please note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from Wikipedia or other free sources online. Chapters: Feudalism, Angles, Danelaw, Late Middle Ages, High Middle Ages, Kingdom of Sicily, Feudalism in England, Scandinavian York. Excerpt: The Late Middle Ages was the period of European history generally comprising the 1. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern era (and, in much of Europe, the Renaissance). Around 1. 30. 0, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1. Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. 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Combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would later lead to the Protestant Reformation. By analogy the term “crusade” is also given to any campaign undertaken in the same spirit. The Meaning of the Crusades. The Crusades may be regarded partly as the decumanus fluctus in the surge of religious revival, which had begun in western Europe during the 1. East and West. Contemporaries regarded them in the former of these two aspects, as “holy wars” and “pilgrims' progresses” towards Christ's Sepulchre; the reflective eye of history must perhaps regard them more exclusively from the latter point of view. Considered as holy wars the Crusades must be interpreted by the ideas of an age which was dominated by the spirit of otherworldliness, and accordingly ruled by the clerical power which represented the other world. They are a novum salutis genus — a new path to Heaven, to tread which counted “for full and complete satisfaction” pro omni poenitentia and gave “forgiveness of sins” (peccaminum remissio). As such a novum salutis genus, the Crusades connect themselves with the history of the penitentiary system; as the foreign policy of the Church they belong to that clerical purification and direction of feudal society and its instincts, which appears in the institution of “God's Truce” and in chivalry itself. The penitentiary system, according to which the priest enforced a code of moral law in the confessional by the sanction of penance — penance which must be performed as a condition of admission to the sacrament of the Eucharist — had been from early times a great instrument in the civilization of the raw Germanic races. Penance might consist in fasting; it might consist in flagellation; it might consist in pilgrimage. The penitentiary pilgrimage, which seems to have been practised as early as A. D. 7. 00, was twice blessed; not only was it an act of atonement in itself, like fasting and flagellation; it also gained for the pilgrim the merit of having stood on holy ground. Under the influence of the Cluniac revival, which began in the 1. Jerusalem. Pilgrims who were travelling to Jerusalem joined themselves in companies for security, and marched under arms; the pilgrims of 1. Mainz, numbered some 7. When the First Crusade finally came, what was it but a penitentiary pilgrimage under arms — with the one additional object of conquering the goal of pilgrimage? That the Pilgrims' Progress should thus have turned into a Holy War is a fact readily explicable, when we turn to consider the attempts made by the Church, during the 1. Fehde). Since the close of the 1. France had been busily acting as legislatures, and enacting “forms of peace” for the maintenance of God's Peace or Truce (Pax Dei or Treuga Dei). In each diocese there had arisen a judicature (judices pacis) to decide when the form had been broken; and an executive, or communitas pacis, had been formed to enforce the decisions of the judicature. But it was an easier thing to consecrate the fighting instinct than to curb it; and the institution of chivalry represents such a clerical consecration, for ideal ends and noble purposes, of the martial impulses which the Church had hitherto endeavoured to check. In the same way the Crusades themselves may be regarded as a stage in the clerical reformation of the fighting laymen. As chivalry directed the layman to defend what was right, so the preaching of the Crusades directed him to attack what was wrong — the possession by “infidels” of the Sepulchre of Christ. The Crusades are the offensive side of chivalry: chivalry is their parent — as it is also their child. The knight who joined the Crusades might thus still indulge the bellicose side of his genius — under the aegis and at the bidding of the Church; and in so doing he would also attain what the spiritual side of his nature ardently sought — a perfect salvation and remission of sins. He might butcher all day, till he waded ankle- deep in blood, and then at nightfall kneel, sobbing for very joy, at the altar of the Sepulchre — for was he not red from the winepress of the Lord? One can readily understand the popularity of the Crusades, when one reflects that they permitted men to get to the other world by fighting hard on earth, and allowed them to gain the fruits of asceticism by the ways of hedonism. Nor was the Church merely able, through the Crusades, to direct the martial instincts of a feudal society; it was also able to pursue the object of its own immediate policy, and to attempt the universal diffusion of Christianity, even at the edge of the sword, over the whole of the known world. Thus was renewed, on a greater scale, that ancient feud of East and West, which has never died. For a thousand years, from the Hegira in 6. Vienna in 1. 68. 3, the peril of a Mahommedan conquest of Europe was almost continually present. From this point of view, the Crusades appear as a reaction of the West against the pressure of the East — a reaction which carried the West into the East, and founded a Latin and Christian kingdom on the shores of Asia. They protected Europe from the new revival of Mahommedanism under the Turks; they gave it a time of rest in which the Western civilization of the middle ages developed. But the relation of East and West during the Crusades was not merely hostile or negative. The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was the meeting- place of two civilizations: on its soil the East learned from the West, and —perhaps still more — the West learned from the East. The culture developed in the West during the 1. Crusades, it grew upon materials which the Crusades enabled it to import from the East. Yet the debt of Europe to the Crusades in this last respect has perhaps been unduly emphasized. Sicily was still more the meeting- place of East and West than the kingdom of Jerusalem; and the Arabs of Spain gave more to the culture of Europe than the Arabs of Syria. Historical Causes of the Crusades. Within fifteen years of the Hegira Jerusalem fell before the arms of Omar (6. Mahommedan rulers till the end of the First Crusade. For centuries, however, a lively intercourse was maintained between the Latin Church in Jerusalem, which the clemency of the Arab conquerors tolerated, and the Christians of the West. Charlemagne in particular was closely connected with Jerusalem: the patriarch sent him the keys of the city and a standard in 8. Harun al- Rashid recognized this symbolical cession, and acknowledged Charlemagne as protector of Jerusalem and owner of the church of the Sepulchre. Charlemagne founded a hospital and a library in the Holy City; and later legend, when it made him the first of crusaders and the conqueror of the Holy Land, was not without some basis of fact. The connexion lasted during the 9th century; kings like Alfred of England and Louis of Germany sent contributions to Jerusalem, while the Church of Jerusalem acquired estates in the West. During the 1. 0th century this intercourse still continued; but in the 1. The fanaticism of the caliph Hakim destroyed the church of the Sepulchre and ended the Frankish protectorate (1. Holy Places, a source of strife between the Greek and the Latin Churches as late as the beginning of the Crimean War, passed to the Byzantine empire in 1. This latter change in itself made pilgrimages from the West increasingly difficult: the Byzantines, especially after the schism of 1. Victor II. But still worse for the Latins was the capture of Jerusalem by the Seljukian Turks in 1. Without being intolerant, the Turks were a rougher and ruder race than the Arabs of Egypt whom they displaced; while the wars between the Fatimites of Egypt and the Abbasids of Bagdad, whose cause was represented by the Seljuks, made Syria (one of the natural battle- grounds of history) into a troubled and unquiet region. The native Christians suffered; the pilgrims of the West found their way made still more difficult, and that at a time when greater numbers than ever were thronging to the East. Western Christians could not but feel hampered and checked in their natural movement towards the fountain- head of their religion, and it was natural that they should ultimately endeavour to clear the way. In much the same way, at a later date and in a lesser sphere, the closing of the trade- routes by the advance of the Ottoman Turks led traders to endeavour to find new channels, and issued in the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery of America. Nor, indeed, must it be forgotten that the search for new and more direct connexions with the routes of Oriental trade is one of the motives underlying the Crusades themselves, and leading to what may be called the 1. Asia. It was thus natural, for these reasons, that the conquest of the Holy Land should gradually become an object for the ambition of Western Christianity — an object which the papacy, eager to realize its dream of a universal Church subject to its sway, would naturally cherish and attempt to advance. Two causes combined to make this object still more natural and more definite. On the one hand, the reconquest of lost territories from the Mahommedans by Christian powers had been proceeding steadily for more than a hundred years before the First Crusade; on the other hand, the position of the Eastern empire after 1. Christian West, and proved, in the event, the immediate occasion of the holy war. As early as 9. 70 the recovery of the territories lost to Mahommedanism in the East had been begun by emperors like Nicephoras Phocas and John Zimisces: they had pushed their conquests, if only for a time, as far as Antioch and Edessa, and the temporary occupation of Jerusalem is attributed to the East Roman arms. At the opposite end of the Mediterranean, in Spain, the Omayyad caliphate was verging to its fall: the long Spanish crusade against the Moor had begun; and in 1. Roger de Toeni was already leading Normans into Catalonia to the aid of the native Spaniard. In the centre of the Mediterranean the fight between Christian and Mahommedan had been long, but was finally inclining in favour of the Christian. The Samsung Galaxy S4 supports 802.11ac with the Broadcom BCM4335 Wi-Fi chipset. ![]() 23 drivers total Last updated: Sep 16th 2016, 17:10 GMT RSS Feed. Latest downloads from Samsung in Bluetooth. We whipped out a ruler and checked, it's true. Admittedly, that measurement expands a little at the. The Samsung Galaxy S4 is an Android smartphone produced by Samsung Electronics and was first shown publicly on March 14, 2013 at Samsung Mobile Unpacked in New York City. Visit Samsung today for Series 4 Notebook. Galaxy Tab S3 9.7"(S Pen included), Silver. This is Chipset driver. So you will not find it on Samsung Spica that use Broadcom WiFi chipset. ![]() Samsung Galaxy Wifi ProblemSamsung Galaxy S II review Hardware. The Samsung Galaxy S II is 8. We whipped out a ruler and checked, it's true. Admittedly, that measurement expands a little at the handset's bottom, where a curvy bump houses its loudspeaker, and around the camera compartment, which protrudes ever so slightly from the rest of the body, but even at its thickest point, this phone doesn't allow itself to go beyond the 1cm mark. Given the veritable spec sheet overload that Samsung has included within the Galaxy S II, we consider its thin profile a stunning feat of engineering. In terms of the pursuit of the absolute slimmest device, NEC's MEDIAS N- 0. C is still the champ at 7. Sony Ericsson Xperia Arc, which measures 8. Galaxy S II for their benchmark slim device. More importantly, Samsung's new 4. Arc, thanks to its intelligently curved sides that provide a comfortable and assured grip. The textured rear cover also feels good to the touch, and should withstand nicks and scratches a lot better than the original Galaxy S' backplate, though don't expect its featherlight construction to contribute much to the phone's overall rigidity. That will be provided by the still- mostly- plastic frame surrounding the phone's screen. We found little cause to doubt the Galaxy S II's durability, though we certainly wouldn't go recommending it as the phone for the builder in your life. There's a minuscule crevice between the handset's frame and screen that looks prone to gathering dust if exposed to dirty environments, and in spite of the generally reassuring build quality, the Galaxy S II is still made out of plastic rather than something more robust like HTC or Nokia's all- aluminum cases. Returning to the screen, it's fronted by one continuous sheet of glass, which protects a 4. Super AMOLED Plus display along with a batch of sensors and a front- facing camera at the top, and two capacitive Android keys at the bottom. The earpiece and Home button are the only disruptions to the sleek glass surface. Whatever coating Samsung has applied to the Galaxy S II's screen works very well, as it resists smudges and fingerprint marks much better than the average smartphone. A volume rocker and a power / lock key each take up one side of the GSII, with a 3. USB charging / data port at the bottom. That's it, no frills, no extras, and - - to the dismay of some - - no dedicated camera shutter button. At least the controls you do get all work very well. The side- mounted buttons do their job without fuss and touchscreen responsiveness is impeccable. The Menu and Back keys are purely capacitive, whereas the Home button is, well, an actual button - - it requires you to physically depress it in order to register input. That distinction may feel a bit awkward at first, but we rather enjoyed it. It meant accidental key taps were all but impossible to achieve and gave a more definitive nature to punching the Home key, which somehow felt appropriate given the fact it yanks you out of whatever you're doing and back to the homescreen. Display. The Galaxy S II's screen is nothing short of spectacular. Blacks are impenetrable, colors pop out at you, and viewing angles are supreme. This would usually be the part where we'd point out that q. HD (9. 60 x 5. 40) resolution is fast becoming the norm among top- tier smartphones and that the GSII's 8. With a screen as beautiful as this, such things pale into insignificance. And we use that verb advisedly - - whereas the majority of LCDs quickly lose their luster when you tilt them away from center, color saturation and vibrancy on the Galaxy S II remain undiminished. It is only at extreme angles that you'll notice some discoloration, but that's only if you're looking for it and takes nothing away from the awe- inspiring experience of simply using this device. Whether you're pushing it to its limits with movie watching or just tamely browsing the web, the Super AMOLED Plus panel inside the Galaxy S II never fails to remind you that it's simply better than almost everything else that's out there. For an instructive example of the contrast on offer here, take a look at our recent post regarding the LG Optimus Big's upcoming launch in Korea. The pattern on that handset's white back was so subtle on our desktop monitor that we completely missed it, whereas when we looked at the same image on the GSII, it looked clear as day. Maybe that doesn't speak too highly of the monitors we're working with, but it underlines the supremacy of the display Samsung has squeezed into the Galaxy S II. We'd even go so far as to say it's better than the i. Phone 4's screen, purely because, at 4. It's almost impossible to split the two up in terms of quality of output, they're both top notch. Notably, however, that was also true of Samsung's original Super AMOLED display, the one that graced the 4- inch Galaxy S, and by now you must be wondering if there's actually anything significant enough in the new S- AMOLED technology to justify appending that . The short answer is yes, and it's all in the pixels. The one major downside to the original Super AMOLED panel was to be found in its Pen. Tile matrix subpixel arrangement. It employed an RGBG pattern, wherein you got two green subpixels for every pair of red and blue ones, but the overall resolution was counted on the basis of green subpixels. Ergo, a Pen. Tile 8. RGB screen (7. 68,0. A lesser criticism of the original Galaxy S was that its colors were a little blown out and oversaturated, but that's once again rendered moot on the successor device - - a software setting called Background effect allows you to tweak saturation, so if you're feeling a little melancholy, you can tone down the intensity of your handset's colors to match your ennui. Basically, if we haven't made it clear already, this is everything that Super AMOLED was, minus the bad parts and plus an extra . A triumph. Okay, there is one mildly irritating aspect about the Galaxy S II's screen and that's the auto- brightness - - it tends to hunt around for the correct setting and occasionally makes jarring jumps between darker and brighter values. Whether that's down to the ambient light sensor or the software reading data from it isn't all that important, what's relevant is that we found ourselves more comfortable with a human helming the brightness controls. Battery life. The story of the Galaxy S II's battery life cannot be told without returning to its luscious screen. Being an OLED panel, the 4. LCD screens do, and instead only illuminates the pixels that are needed to actively display content. This is the reason why it can generate truer blacks than any backlit panel, but it also permits the user to optimize battery life by doing such things as switching to a darker wallpaper or reading ebooks against a black background. We didn't actually bother with such tweaks, we were too busy exploring every one of the myriad features on this phone, but the option's there as an extra dimension of obsessive control if you care for it. As to the Galaxy S II's actual endurance, we found it highly competitive with the latest batch of Android phones. After 2. 0 hours, half of which were filled with the above tinkering and exploration, we managed to drag the Galaxy S II down to 1. This was with our usual push notification suppliers, Gmail and Twitter, running in the background and while constantly connected to our Wi. Fi network. Using the Android System Info app (available for free on the Android Market), we found confirmation that the Galaxy S II is indeed running a 1. GHz ARMv. 7 dual- core processor, but more importantly, we also dug up a breakdown of how often the SOC was reaching that max speed. Only 9. 2 percent of our use harnessed the full 1. GHz, with Samsung wisely downclocking its chip to as low as 2. MHz when the phone's idling (that accounted for 4. Galaxy S II's uptime). What's impressive about this is that we never hit upon any performance bumps to indicate that we were running at slower speeds. Clearly, Samsung's power management system is doing its job well. In summary, we expect you'll be able to get a decent couple of days' regular use out of the Galaxy S II - - our experience with it came close to what we got out of HTC's Incredible S and Desire S that recently crossed our review bench - - though processor- intensive activities like HD video playback will eat into that, as will the variability of 3. G coverage. What we can say with absolute certainty is that the Galaxy S II is no slouch when put against its contemporaries, and it also marks a definite improvement in longevity over the original Galaxy S. Loudspeaker / earpiece. The loudspeaker is surprisingly passable, hell, it's more than passable. We're probably being swayed by the gorgeous screen on this phone, but playing back video without relying on headphones feels just fine, unlike the usual grinding chore that it is on most current phones. That being said, Tinie Tempah's Pass Out - - a song that starts out dominated by deep bass - - sounds like a hilarious remix of the original on the GSII owing to the speaker's inability to dip down low enough to sound out the track's bassline. Bass deprivation is a typical shortcoming of smartphones, which isn't looking likely to find a fix any time soon. You still won't be forced to abandon your dubstep addiction while on the move, however, as Samsung bundles a solid pair of in- ear headphones that do a very respectable job of both isolating external noise and delivering audio to your cranium. Including an in- line mic that doubles as a music play / pause button is no bad thing either. We'd be remiss not to point out that the Galaxy S II's loudspeaker is positioned rather poorly - - it and the two slits cut into the phone's rump for its output face the rear. Laying the handset down on a flat surface immediately alters the sound and a stray finger - a single fleshy finger - - can mute almost everything. The earpiece performed as close to the middle of the road as you can get. |
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